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RELIGION, BELIEF AND RITUAL |
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The indigenous religion of Japan is Shinto, and all Japanese people
belong to it by default. From a population of roughly 126 million, 96
million people are also Buddhist and around 1.5 million Christian. The
idea of combining religions may seem strange, but a mixture of
philosophy, politics and a bit of creative interpretation has, over
time, enabled this to happen.
The most important factor that allowed faiths to combine is that Shinto,
a naturalistic religion, does not possess one all-powerful deity, sacred
scriptures or a particular philosophy or moral code. It holds that its
followers must live their lives according to the way or mind of the kami
(gods), and that the kami favour harmony and co-operation. Therefore,
Shinto tolerates its worshippers following other religions, and they
find it an easy step to combine Shinto's nature worship with the worship
of an almighty deity, such as that in Christianity, or with the
philosophical moral code of Buddhism.
According to Shinto, the relationship between people and their tutelary
kami is like that between parent and child. Generations have been born
and lived under the protection of the kami . When they die, the Japanese
become kami , so not only are their ancestors kami , but they themselves
will become so, creating, in theory, an inherent and unbreakable
relationship down the generations.
Festivals are a common sight in Japan and many Shinto customs are still
manifest in everyday life, from marriage ceremonies to purifying
building plots and new cars. Nevertheless, few Japanese today are aware
of anything other than the basic tenets of either Shinto or Buddhism and
many would not consider themselves "religious" as such. Instead, Shinto
and Buddhist ideas are so deeply ingrained in everyday life that, in
general, there is little sense of conscious involvement. This means that,
while many people do not practise any faith on a daily basis, they find
it quite natural to pray at a shrine or temple during annual festivals
or on a sightseeing trip. And, as elsewhere, people tend to become more
involved in religion, particularly Buddhism, during their later years.
Peter Grimshaw
The birth of Japan
Japan's mythological origins could have come from the pen of J.R.R.
Tolkien. According to the oldest written records, the Kojiki and the
Nihon-shoki , the god Izanagi-no-Mikoto and goddess Izanami-no-Mikoto
leant down from the Floating Bridge of Heaven and stirred the ocean with
a jewelled spear. Drops of brine falling from the spear created the
first island of Japan, Onogoro-jima, where the couple gave birth to an "eight-island
country", complete with kami . Amaterasu , the sun goddess and ultimate
ancestress of the imperial family, was created out of a bronze mirror
held in Izanagi's left hand and sent to rule the heavens. Her younger
brother, Susanoo , was put in charge of the earth. Unhappy with this
situation, he started causing turmoil in the heavens, and so upset
Amaterasu that she hid herself in a celestial cave, plunging the world
into darkness.
The other gods banished Susanoo to the underworld. Then, in an effort to
coax Amaterasu out of the cave, they performed a comical dance involving
a spear. Upon hearing the somewhat ribald laughter, Amaterasu's
curiosity got the better of her and she poked her head out to see the
fun. Enticed out a little further by a beautiful jewel, Amaterasu was
then captivated by a bronze mirror. While she was preoccupied, the gods
quickly sealed the cave entrance and sunlight returned to the world.
In time, Amaterasu's grandson, Ninigi , was sent down to rule Japan. She
gave him three gifts which were to be his imperial regalia : a bronze
mirror, a sword and a curved jewel. Here myth finally merges into proto-history,
when Jimmu , said to be Ninigi's great grandson, became the first
emperor of Japan on the first day of spring 660 BC.
Shinto
Shinto , or "the way of the gods", only received its name in the sixth
century to distinguish it from the newly arrived Buddhism. Gods are felt
to be present in natural phenomena, for example mountains, trees,
waterfalls, strangely shaped rocks, even in sounds. But Shinto is more
than just a nature-worshipping faith; it is an amalgam of attitudes,
ideas and ways of doing things that for more than 2000 years has become
an integral part of what it is to be Japanese. Shinto is a personal
faith in the kami , a communal way of life in accordance with the mind
of the kami and a spiritual life attained through worship of and
communion with the kami . People are believed to be the children of both
their parents and kami and therefore owe their lives to both society and
nature. In return for the love and protection they receive, they are
obliged to treat both of them with loyalty and honesty, and to continue
the family line showing kindness and guidance to their descendants.
Throughout most of Japanese history, Shinto did not play a particularly
important role in state politics. This all changed, however, after the
Meiji Restoration of 1868 when Shinto was revived as the dominant
religion, largely to re-establish the cult of the emperor, while
Buddhism was suppressed. Thus started the most sinister episode of
Japan's religious and political life: State Shinto .
State Shinto ushered in a period of extreme nationalism which lasted
from around 1890 to 1945. During this period, Japan's mythological
origins were taught as historical fact and people were encouraged to
believe that all Japanese were descended from the imperial line. At the
same time, the traditional values of loyalty, inner strength and self-denial
expressed in bushido (the way of the warrior) were promoted as desirable
personal qualities. Such sentiments were milked by the 1930s military
regime to foster a national sense of superiority. Ultimately, this
potent cocktail created a highly dedicated nation on the eve of World
War II. After the war, Emperor Hirohito was forced to renounce his
divinity, to become a merely titular head of state, and the State branch
of Shinto was abolished.
Buddhism
The vast majority of Japanese people are followers of Buddhism as well
as Shinto. Buddhism originated in India with a wealthy Hindu prince
called Siddhartha Gautama who, dissatisfied with Hinduism's explanation
of worldly suffering, rejected asceticism as the way to spiritual
realization and turned instead to meditation. After several nomadic
years he achieved enlightenment ( nirvana ) while meditating one night
under a bodhi tree, and devoted the rest of his life to teaching that "right
thoughts" and "right actions" must be followed to reduce all material
and emotional attachments in order to increase awareness and ultimately
to attain nirvana .
The Mahayana (Greater Vehicle) school of Buddhism, which believes in
salvation for all beings jointly rather than the individual pursuit of
nirvana , was introduced to Japan from China in the mid-sixth century.
As with many things, Japan adapted this foreign import to suit its own
culture and values. Buddha was accepted as a kami and, over the years,
certain religious aspects were dropped or played down, for example
celibacy and the emphasis on private contemplation.
But Buddhism did not travel alone to Japan; it brought with it Chinese
culture. Over the next two centuries, monks, artists and scholars went
to China to study religion, art, music, literature and politics, all of
which brought great advances to Japanese culture. As a result, Buddhism
became embroiled in the political struggles of the Nara and Heian eras,
when weak emperors used Buddhist and Chinese culture to enhance their
own power and level of cultural sophistication, and to reduce the
influence of their Shintoist rivals. The balance of power between
buddhas and kami also shifted: kami were regarded as being prone to
rebirth, from which they could be released by Buddhist sutras. To this
end, Buddhist temples were built next to Shinto shrines, and statues and
regalia placed on Shinto altars to help raise the kami to the level of
buddhas. Eventually, some kami became the guardians of temples, while
buddhas were regarded as the prime spiritual beings.
Up until the end of the twelfth century, Japanese Buddhism was largely
restricted to a small, generally aristocratic minority who had been
initiated into the faith. However, at this time the dominant sect,
Tendai , split into various new sects , notably Jodo, Jodo Shinshp,
Nichiren and Zen Buddhism, which each appealed to different sections of
the population. The first two in particular were simple forms of the
faith which enabled Buddhism to evolve from a religion of the elite to
one which also appealed to the population en masse. The Nichiren sect
had a more scholastic approach, while Zen's concern for ritual, form and
practice attracted the samurai classes and had a great influence on
Japan's traditional arts. Almost all contemporary Japanese Buddhism
developed from these sects, which are still very much in existence today
.
From the fifteenth century, however, Shinto started making a comeback.
In reaction to the absorption of the indigenous faith into this foreign
religion, various Shinto sects revived the ascendancy of kami over
buddhas, ending the idea that they were merely Japanese manifestations
of buddhas. This process came to a head after the 1868 Meiji Restoration,
when Shinto was declared the national faith. Most Buddhist elements were
removed from Shinto shrines and destroyed, and Buddhism was suppressed
until the end of World War II when religious freedom returned to Japan.
Nowadays Buddhism and Shinto coexist peaceably once again and share the
vast majority of their followers.
Shugendo
Shugendo is a colourful blend of Buddhist esoteric and tantric concepts,
Chinese Taoist magic and Shinto shamanism. Based on mountain asceticism,
the religion was formalized in the eighth century by the monk En-no-Gyoja
, who was famous for his mystic powers.
Following Shinto practice, Shugendo's mountain priests, yamabushi ,
believe that the mountains are centres of sacred power. They go through
elaborate initiation rites, austerities and self-denial to acquire this
sacred power which they can then use to heal and bless common people.
Their practices include meditation, mountain hiking, sitting in smoke-filled
rooms, sumo wrestling, and partial denial of food, sleep and daily
ablutions. These are designed to train both body and spirit, and are a
metaphor for the soul's uncomfortable journey from death to rebirth.
Shugendo was quite popular until the 1868 Meiji Restoration when it,
along with other forms of Buddhism, was suppressed. Nevertheless,
pockets of this mysterious faith can still be found, notably on Dewa-sanzan
in north Honshu where some of the ancient practices survive. One of the
most lively events is the Shoreisai (Pine Festival), held on the night
of New Year's Eve. Two groups of priests hurl abuse at each other (made
all the more colourful by large quantities of sake) and engage in
various contests to divine whether the coming year will bring good
harvests.
Folk religion
Japanese folk religion draws on ideas from Shinto, Buddhism and Chinese
Taoism, which added shamanism, spirit possession and magico-religious
practices to the pot. The "holy men" (or women) of folk religion may be
specialists in, among other things, geomancy, divination, healing,
exorcism and communicating with the gods. They offer various rites and
advice, for example explaining why misfortunes have occurred or
recommending auspicious times for weddings, long journeys and other
important events.
One manifestation of such beliefs is the six-day calendar (sometimes
incorporated into normal calendars) in which one day is considered good
for all endeavours, another day is considered bad, and the other days
are either good or bad at certain times for certain things. Similar
notions govern the naming of children . Not only the time and place of
birth affects the character and destiny of a person, but also their name.
Before deciding on a given name, therefore, parents may consult a hiriji
(holy man, or priest) about the number of pen strokes required to write
the chosen characters. A bad combination of name, time and place of
birth may result in a life of persistent misfortune.
There is also a more mythological side to Japanese folk religion
involving a whole host of gods , guardians and demons . The ones to have
on your side are the Seven Lucky Gods , Shichi Fuku-jin , often seen
sailing in a boat on New Year greetings cards to wish good fortune for
the coming year. Of these, the best-loved are Ebisu , the god of
prosperity, identified by his fishing rod and sea-bream; Daikoku , the
god of wealth, carries a treasure-sack over one shoulder and a lucky
hammer; the squat Fukurokuju , god of longevity, is marked by a bald,
egg-shaped head; while the jovial god of happiness, Hotei , sports a
generous belly and a beaming smile.
Characters to avoid, on the other hand, are the oni , a general term for
demons and ogres, though oni aren't always bad. At Setsubun (Feb 3 or 4)
children can be seen running round throwing soya beans all over the
place, shouting " oni wa soto, fuku wa uchi ", meaning "out with the
demons, in with good luck". Tengu are mischievous mountain goblins with
red faces and very long noses, while kappa are a bit like a small troll
and live under bridges. If anything goes missing while you're hiking,
you can probably blame one of these as they both like to steal things,
including animals and children. If it's your liver that's missing,
however, it will definitely be a kappa ; he likes to extract them from
people's bodies through the anus, so watch out.
Christianity
Shipwrecked Portuguese traders were the first Christians to set foot in
Japan, in Tanageshima, an island off Kyushu, in 1543. As far as
Christianity is concerned though, it was not until Saint Francis Xavier
and his Jesuit missionaries landed in Kagoshima, southwest Kyushu, in
1549 that things really took off. Initially, the local daimyo were eager
to convert, largely in order to acquire firearms and other advanced
European technologies, while often also maintaining their original
religious belief and practices. It wasn't only about trade, though; many
feudal lords were also attracted by Jesuit austerity, which accorded
with their bushido values, while the poor were attracted by social
programmes which helped raise their standard of living.
The port of Nagasaki was created in 1571 to trade with the Portuguese.
It soon became a centre of Jesuit missionary activity, from where
Catholicism spread rapidly throughout Kyushu. At first, the converts
were tolerated by the authorities, and in the late 1570s the then ruler
of Japan, the great, unifying general Oda Nobunaga , used Christianity,
with all its material benefits, to win over his remaining influential
opponents against the troublesome Buddhists. In 1582 he was succeeded by
Toyotomi Hideyoshi who completed the unification of Japan. To
Hideyoshi's mind the Christians had now served their purpose, and their
increasing stranglehold on trade, coupled with a growing influence in
secular affairs, was beginning to pose a threat. Persecution began in
1587 when Hideyoshi ordered the expulsion of all missionaries, though
there was little immediate action; in fact the number of foreign
missionaries increased temporarily with the arrival of Spanish
Franciscan friars. In 1597, however, Hideyoshi struck again: six
Franciscan priests and twenty local converts were crucified upside-down
in Nagasaki.
Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu succeeded Hideyoshi in 1598. Though generally
more tolerant of the Christian Europeans - principally in the interests
of maintaining good trade relations - Ieyasu passed several edicts
prohibiting Christianity after 1612. It was a short reprieve. Ieyasu's
son, Hidetada , turned persecution into an art form when he came to
power in 1618. Suspected Christians were forced to trample on pictures
of Christ or the Virgin Mary to prove their innocence. If they refused,
they were tortured, burnt at the stake or thrown into boiling sulphur;
over 3000 local converts were martyred between 1597 and 1660.
Things came to a head with the Battle of Shimabara in 1637, when a
Christian-led army rebelled against the local daimyo . Japan had been
gradually closing itself off from the world during the 1620s, but this
was the final straw. Christian worship in Japan was forbidden and the
edicts were only finally repealed in the late nineteenth century.
Amazingly, a sizeable number of converts in Kyushu continued to uphold
their faith, disguised as onando buppo "back-room Buddhism", throughout
this time. When foreign missionaries again appeared in Nagasaki in the
mid-1860s, they were astonished to discover some 20,000 of these "hidden
Christians" .
Today, Christians represent less than two percent of Japan's population.
Though churches can be found even in small rural towns, Christmas is
only celebrated as a brief commercial fling. Christianity - however
superficially - has also had an impact on Japanese weddings . It is
currently fashionable to get married in Western-style chapels, created
solely for that purpose, partly because it appears exotic, and partly
because it's less complex than the traditional Shinto ceremony.
The new religions
Several new religions appeared in Japan during the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries, many of them offshoots of Nichiren Buddhism. Their
basic beliefs and practices are generally a mix of Shinto, Buddhism and
Confucianism, incorporating loyalty to work and the family with
teachings of karma, reincarnation and the coming of a new age. Most tend
to have charismatic leaders, often of a shamanistic tradition, and grand
headquarters. They also tend to appeal to the poorer classes, to whom
they offer sympathy, a sense of belonging and importance, and help in
adjusting to modern life. Considering the extremely rapid modernization
of Japan during the last two centuries, the success of these
organizations is perhaps not so surprising.
The biggest such organization is Soka Gakkai (Value Creation Society).
It was founded in 1937 by schoolteacher Makiguchi Tsunesaburo, who
emphasized the importance of educational philosophy alongside the
day-to-day benefits of religion. Under the umbrella of Nichiren
Buddhism, Soka Gakkai's structure was formalized after World War II,
focusing on tightly knit groups engaged in educational work, social
activities and large-scale jamborees aimed at finding fulfilment in the
present. With its proselytizing mission and broad appeal to people of
all ages and classes, Soka Gakkai now claims around twenty million
members. The movement also has a nominally independent political branch,
the Komeito or "Clean Government Party" founded in 1964 as a backlash to
corruption in Japanese politics. With its vast and effective grass-roots
network, Komeito has long been a significant group within Japan's
opposition parties and since October 1999 has formed part of the ruling
LDP-Conservative coalition government.
At the other end of the scale, AUM Shinrikyo (AUM Supreme Truth), now
officially known as Aleph, was founded in 1986 by a blind yoga teacher,
Asahara Shoko . Claiming to be a Buddhist sect, adherents believed that
the world would end in 1997 and that only AUM members would survive. At
its height, the cult boasted 10,000 members in Japan and 30,000 abroad,
mainly in Russia. Little known to most of his followers, however,
Asahara's prime goal was world domination, but the truth started to
emerge after the 1995 Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway. Fortunately,
the police stopped AUM before Asahara could carry out his plans, but the
group's activities stunned the Japanese population and raised fears that
Japan may no longer be the safe and harmonious country it once was.
Religion, ritual and culture
It's often said that Shinto and Buddhism have given the Japanese a
unique appreciation for ritual, nature and art. Various aspects of
Japanese culture have developed from religious ritual and values, such
as the No drama which evolved out of Shinto's ancient sacred dances . In
addition, sumo wrestling, traditional gardens, the tea ceremony and
flower arranging all stem from ritualistic aspects of Japanese religions
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